فصلنامه جامعه شناسی کاربردی
سال بیست و نهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 70، تابستان 1397)

Although social and economic capitals have been studied more often in health studies (Ghasemi et al., 2008; Nekonam et al., 2015; Chuang et al., 2015; Frank et al., 2015), cultural capital could have a significant impact on heath and related behaviors. By increasing cultural capital through education, training, attending cultural events and consuming cultural goods, one’s lifestyle can change (Khaje-Noori & Koochani Esfahani, 2016). As it is well known, human societies are in forth step of epidemiological transmission which is named hubristic, in which lifestyle plays a crucial role in the health and mortality of people (Lucas & Meyer, 1994). The aim of this study is to investigate the students’ cultural capital impact on general health through the mediating role of healthy lifestyle. Applied Theoretical framework of this study is driven from Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital and Cockerham’s theory about healthy lifestyle. Bourdieu (1986) invented the term cultural capital to refer to the set of cultural proficiencies people usually inherit and sometimes learn. Moreover, Bourdieu theorized that cultural capital exists in three forms including embodied, objectified, and institutionalized. Briefly, in the embodied state capital pertains to dispositions of mind and body, in the objectified state capital refers to cultural goods and in the institutionalized state capital refers to the license that an institution or governing body confers on individuals who have achieved a societally sanctioned goal or status (Tierney, 1999). Bourdieu’s book Distinction (1984) includes an analysis of food habits and sports describing how a class-oriented habitus shaped these particular aspects of health lifestyles. However, Cockerham’s works (1999 & 2000) provides an appropriate framework. He follows Bourdieu’s theoretical framework in his theory of healthy lifestyles and in identifying negative healthy lifestyles as the primary social determinant of ongoing downturn in life expectancy. According to Cockerham (2010), the structure of everyday life both limits and molds health–related choices to the extent that lifestyle may lead to premature death.

This quantitative study is designed by a cross-sectional survey. The instrument was a self-response questionnaire including General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), Pender’s Health-Promotion Lifestyle Profile, and Ebrahimi & Ziapoor’s (2012) Cultural Capital Questionnaire according to Bourdieu’s theory. The statistical population included high school students of Shiraz, of whom 391 male and female students were selected as statistical sample using Cochran formula. Cluster sampling was used to collect data using the statistics from Education Organization of Shiraz. For validity and reliability tests, face validity and Cronbach’s coefficient alpha were used (the latter being more than 0.65 for all the variables).

Descriptive findings suggest that students have a good status on both healthy behaviors and general health. Suitable somatic symptoms, spiritual growth and institutionalized cultural capital had the highest scores in general health, healthy lifestyle and cultural capital respectively. The results showed that all the three variables including cultural capital, healthy lifestyle and general health have positive and significant correlations. Model fit indices for the fitness of applied measurement model is acceptable. Moreover, the results of Structural Equations Modeling (SEM) demonstrated that student’s general health is indirectly and positively influenced by cultural capital through the variable of healthy lifestyle. In details, cultural capital positively influences healthy lifestyle and healthy lifestyle has the same effect on general health. Therefore, it is expected that any increase in the cultural capital of students promote healthy behaviors and general health. Overall, the results of this study approved the accuracy of the measurement model of this study and highlighted the importance of cultural capital in promotion of both general health and healthy behaviors.

Hiding the identity and performing multiple roles within virtual space is one of the several facilities that the Internet provides for its users. Using this feature has made users both the author of the text and the author of their own identity (Turkl, 1996: 26). Two types of factors are commonly known as effective factors: identity attributes of users and environmental features, both virtual and real, that is, all users do not equally hide identity or vice versa (Kalinovsky and Adam Matheti, 2011: 7-8; Jiang et al., 2011: 59-58; Chiu, 2007: 725). The purpose of this study is to describe and explain the relationship between individual and environmental characteristics with anonymity of the actors in the Internet using Dramaturgical perspective of Goffman and Terkel. According to Goffman's perspective, people are involved in interactions and performances. The performances are partly shaped by the social environment and audiences’ interpretations. An important dimension of the implementation of the "front" is that the front consists of all the permanent features that a person intentionally or inadvertently implements during performances, Goffman divided the front into two parts of the environment and personal front. The environment is all of the underlying objects that provide space for action. The personal front includes items that are in close contact with the actor himself, including gender, age, and other personal features. (Goffman, 2012: 35-36). He concludes that there is a relationship between individual's performances and social identity. Virtual space researchers, such as Sherri Terkel (1996), using Goffman's perspective, discus two types of identities: Offline identity and online identity. Offline identity is our objective identity and online identity is an identity that Internet users use in virtual communities. Presence in virtual space allows the user to access the virtual environment due to its specific features, including the possibility of anonymity and the removal of physical signs, which, by and large, play a variety of different roles at different times of their own choosing. Goffman calls these behaviors as "secret consumption": if one wants to make ideal criteria during his performance, he will have to hide or remove actions that do not fit these criteria. Given the limitations, barriers, and traditions in the Iranian social environment for interacting with the opposite sex on the one hand and the increasing use of the Internet, on the other hand, the fundamental question is which of the individual characteristics of users and which of the objective and virtual environmental features can play a greater role in virtual anonymity?

The method of this study was survey and its statistical population was all students of University of Guilan, of whom 372 students were selected by employing stratified and random sampling methods. A researcher-made questionnaire was used for collecting data that includes variables such as user's attributes, Internet usage variables, traditional limitations and Anonymity in online relationships.

According to findings, boys have more than girls and undergraduate students have more than master students tendency towards anonymity in internet relationships and this correlation is statistically significant. Increasing the average hours of Internet usage per week, using dating sites, blogs and chat room and also traditional limitations regarding dating, have significant correlation with the anonymity in internet relationships. Totally, educational status and traditional limitations explained 41.5 percent of the variance of anonymity in online relationships. Educational status had negative effect and the traditional limitations had a positive effect on using anonymous identity in internet relationships. Conforming with Gaffman's ideas on the performance of the role on the scene, the virtual space is like a scene, composed of two environments : the front and back stages,. When individuals play the roles on scene and create another identity for themselves, they remove and conceal some of their actions to shape this ideal identity. According to the findings, Internet users are trying to reproduce an offline self through online self, .what they are looking for in the offline world and cannot fulfillbecause of social constraints in the society, is looked after through secret consumption in virtual space. One of the social activities that young people and students consider to be of great importance is the establishment of friendly relations, especially with the opposite sex. The expansion of such relationships in recent years, both in the online and offline environments, has been reported by various scholars. But what is clearly evident here is the role of social constraints in establishing an offline friendly relationship with the opposite sex and the tendency of actors to engage in such relationships in the online environment by using mask.

The young generations of Iranian population have been experiencing rapid demographic, social and economic changes during the recent years. Growing number of youth population (youth bulge), resulting from the changing demography of Iranian society, produce numerous opportunities and challenges. Given the big size and the current situation of Iranian youth population, meeting the diverse needs of this young generations has been setting important priority in policy-making during recent years. The present paper is aimed to investigate the existing gaps between the numerous needs of young people from one side, and services or policies designed to address the needs of youth by administrative section of government on the other sides in the province of Yazd. Using data from a survey carried out in Yazd, this paper determines the exiting gaps and finally presents some policy recommendations to filling these gaps.

Data were collected through a survey conducted in a sample of 400 young people (200 males and 200 females) aged 15 and 29 years old who were living in the city of Yazd. Respondents selected through a cluster random sampling techniques. Those data were analyzed using the Importance-Performance model to determine the gap between youth needs and the government administrative sections’ performance. General needs of the young people were asked in the survey questionnaire through 35 items and then we categorized the mentioned items into four groups of needs including: A). economic needs, B). social needs, C). educational-cultural needs, and D). entertainment-sport needs. To determine the gap between the youth needs and policies priorities, we apply Importance-Performance model within each of the four specific categories of needs separately as well as for all needs entirely.

Findings suggest that amongst 35 items which were designed for need assessment in the present study, the young people in the city of Yazd give highest priorities respectively to: having an adequate and stable job, the possibility of owning a house, possibility to earn money or income achievement, capability of affording the cost of living, existence of parks and recreational facilities, possibility of owning an suitable car, existence of parks and green spaces allocated exclusively to female, growth and promotion of general psychological and social health, facilitate suitable context for marriage and existence of programs which facilitate involvement of youth to the society. In general, findings imply that among all, the economic category of needs, especially those needs which are related to employment, income and housing are the main concern for youth. Therefore, the young people evaluate a wide gap between these economic needs and executive performance of governmental sectors and they feel necessity of designing some proper policies to address the gaps in this realm. Further analysis of data indicates that there are a significant gender differences between male and female in evaluation of the need in some items. For example, our findings show that there are considerable gender differences for “the possibility of income achievement” and “affording the cost of living”, in which the young men place more emphasize on these needs than the young women (mean=8.92 and 8.86 for male, compared with 8.51 and 8.38 for female, respectively). However, there are not any significant age group differences in evaluation of other economic needs under the study among youth. In the category of social needs, respondents aged 25-29 place more relative importance on the suitable context for marriage in comparison with the other two age group. In the category of entertainment-sport needs, women consider parks and green spaces allocated exclusively to female more important than men (The means values respectively is 6.78 and 7.91). Paper concluded with some policy recommendations to filling up the need- performance gap for every category of young people needs.

The present study was conducted to evaluate the typology of divorce and its social consequences. The divorce is classified and studied and divided into two types of rational and irrational. Rational divorce is divided into four categories of ambitious divorce, subjective, adaptive and passive. The main characteristic of this type, as its name suggests, is the rationality of the actors. For subjects who fall into this category, divorce is considered rational. Irrational divorce involves hasty and compulsory, which is due to the exterior requirements or the insistence of the opposing party, and the subject of divorce has no desire for separation and has not experienced an emotional divorce. Moreover, Weber’s Action and Pareto’s Logical Action, as well as Becker’s Theory of Economics were studied with social capital variables, quality of life, social security and moral, social opportunities, role ambiguity, social relations, and social status.

The present study is conducted quantitatively as a survey. The statistical society of all divorced women was covered by the Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province Relief Committee in 1395. About 400 people were examined by using the Cochran sampling formula and by regular cluster technique using a researcher-made questionnaire and a standard questionnaire (in the field of quality of life and social capital). Measurement tools have been finalized with face validity and instruments (factor analysis) and its reliability has been confirmed using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. The data are presented at two descriptive and inferential levels using the SPSS and AMOS statistical software.

The results show that all of the research variables were significant at p=/0001 level, so that rational ambitious divorce affects social relationships, social opportunities, social and moral security, quality of life, it has positive and direct impact on social capital, role duality. However, social status has a negative and inverse effect. Rational divorce has a direct and direct effect on social communication, social opportunities, negative social repercussions on social capital, social and moral security, and dualism. Rational divorce means agreeing on social relationships, social opportunities, negative and negative quality of life, and social capital, social and moral security, duality has a positive and direct effect. Rational passive divorce has a negative effect on social communication, social opportunities, but is on a positive and direct relation with quality of life, and social capital, and social and moral security. Overall, the results of the research show that racial divorces can have adverse social consequences for subjects. This means that hasty and compulsory irrational divorces have high-risk consequences (because they are not decision-makers or without thinking and reasoning about the social consequences of divorce) for divorced people.

The developed western societies have largely been indebted to the elites because their development is provided by elites’ activities and dynamics. Today, the scientific development and growth of these courtiers is increasingly proliferated, leading to the hegemonic dominance of these countries in the world. This scientific dominance is applied by dynamic research and development entities, universities, and institutions that their main actors are the scientific elites. The human capital flight or brain drain are the concepts that in economics and sociology have been respectively presented to describe this process. The process increasingly profits one party and impairs the other party. This process is very frightening for Iran. Annually, 150-180 thousands of educated Iranians leave the country; insofar as Iran has been at forefront of brain drain in recent years. This statistic means that annually 150 billion dollars have been going out from Iran (Faraji Dana, 20013). This means that around 25% of Iranian post-graduate students live in other countries (Abdullahi, 2016). Such a complicated situation simply strengthens the core countries and weakens the peripheral countries. Meanwhile, different groups of thinkers from different scientific fields have tried to investigate the issue of elite immigration (why and how). But the main reference group i.e. the elites of the country has not been studied. Instead, the travel and immigration agencies, the students as a whole, language learning centers and so on have been considered by researchers. In other words, the real and formal elites and top talented students almost have not been studied at all. In fact, what has been neglected is why elites leave the country even after being supported by National Elite Foundation. In other words, why the elites tend to leave the country despite the supports provided by National Elite Foundation and why Iran is at the forefront of brain drain in the world. The reason of this lies in deep and qualitative interviews. In other words, the mentality of the elite and top talented Iranians should be scrutinized and their experiences about professional and social life in Iranian society should be studied in detail. In fact, by recognizing their mentality accurately, it can be possible to understand their arguments and reasons about life, work, and activity in Iran. Accordingly, the main question and issue of this problem is: what is the elites’ understanding of their position in the social system of Iran and how and from which social processes, this understanding is constructed?

The methodology of the current research is configured based on the interpretative paradigm. In this regard, the current research is selected the qualitative methodology. In addition, based on the answers to the research questions and goals, the ground theory strategy is used to design the methodology. This method tries to produce or discover the theory in order to achieve a great degree of description. In the current research, the objectivism approach of Strauss and Corbin (2011) will be used. The sampling of current research is based on the chain and purposive sampling. In this regard, it is attempted to select the statistical society from Olympiad students, top national students, top graduates, national and global inventors, active and experienced top talented students, etc. By using deep and semi-deep interview techniques, the process of data collection was continued based on the theoretical sampling to achieve theoretical saturation and interviews were conducted with 11 participants. In the process of data analysis, the line-by-line analysis was used for open coding and with the development of concepts and categories, the axial coding and selective coding were used.

The paradigmatic model of research shows the flow of processes and activities that have happened in the context of the research. This model consists of 5 parts: causal conditions, ground conditions, intervening conditions, strategies, and consequences. The central phenomenon is placed on the center of research and the activities are formed around it. The flow of processes and activities that have happened in the context of this research shows that the central phenomenon of the research is the experience of undesirable position and unfavorable and unpredictable situation. In other words, the participants of the research think that their position is undesirable and the situation of the country is unfavorable for scientific, economic, cultural and political work and activity. In addition, they have assessed the conditions governing the country unpredictable that make impossible any planning even at the short term. So their mental and objective experience about their position and country situation was an undesirable position and an unfavorable and unpredictable situation. As a result of this mental and objective experience, they have attempted to use some strategies. In addition, other factors had also been effective on their experiences and strategies that have created some consequences. This flow of processes and activities is described in the paradigmatic chart of the research. The causal conditions of the research are: 1. Living in Iranian society; 2. Many conflicts in educational, scientific, career, cultural, political, ideological and belief institutions. The contextual conditions of the research include: 1. the developed expectations of elites; 2. The feeling of having a desirable position for themselves and their family; 3. Having an active, smart and pushing mentality; 4. Imagining themselves as strong and able to make changes in society in the form of unique ideas; 5. The great social and cultural capital of elites and communicating with other elites. The intervening conditions are: 1. The inappropriate situation of the country; 2. The unfavorable situation of the business, career cultural and political activities of elites; 3. Ideological and belief-based assessments for job priorities; 4. High education of elites; 5. Heavy use of virtual social networks and media and comparing the elites of other countries with themselves. The strategies of the participants in the research include: 1. Continual group activities such as cultural and social activities in work groups, research institutions, etc.; 2. Different individual activities such as individual and non-supported attempts to design, register, produce and distribute the inventions, speeches in the presence of officials, etc. The consequences resulting from utilizing the different strategies and actions of participants can be outlined as follows: 1. Personal successes; 2. Losing elites; 3. Leaving the country (brain drain).

Literally, socialization means conformity with society and familiarizing with society (Hagh Shenas et al, 2008). In sociology this concept refers to a process whereby people will achieve properties which are befitting for being a member of the society (scruto,2007). In other words, socialization is a kind of social interaction that during it a person will learn the norms, values, and other social, cultural, and political elements, existing in his group or his environment and internalizes them to unite it with his personality (Salimi & Daveri, 2006).After family, peer group is known as the second most important factor of socialization (Sotoudeh, 2016). Adolescence is considered to be accompanied with major and various changes and an increase in vulnerability. Beginning of puberty is usually followed by early or late psychological maturity and high risk-taking behaviors which appears differently in boys and girls (Pettiford, 2015: 13). By socialization teenagers will learn how to recognize and manage their emotional display and also they will learn how to view social norms (Collins, 2004; Rubin, 2011).Parents are considered as a major factors of socialization in young ages in a way that this impact will be continued till adolescence ( Collins & Laursen, 2004; Rubin, Oh, Menzer, & Ellison, 2011). Parents and friends are involved with a great range of social strategies, such as modeling of expressing feelings in response to the teenagers’ feelings and related issues. Schools also have some roles in the process of socialization. Education in schools is a formal process. There is a certain aim which must be learned from lessons. There is something besides the formal educational program, which is named hidden training program by sociologist that makes children’s learning conditional. Children are expected to be on time, calm and obey school’s rules. Teacher’s reaction has some effects on children’s expectation of themselves which will be linked by their job experience when they leave school (Giddens, 1999, 106-107). With regards to what is discussed the principal question of this research is to define the roles of social factors in socializations of students in Golestan province.

This research is a correlational descriptive survey. Statistical population includes all high school students of Golestan province. According to the latest expertly report of the educational administration of Golestan province the number of all high school students in Golestan province is 76156. Relying on estimating the sample volume of Cochrane formula, 400 people of subjects were chosen as the sample. The method of sampling is simple random cluster sampling method. The tool of gathering data in this research is questionnaire: sociability factors scale questionnaire (SFS). This questionnaire includes 26 questions which measure three factors of socialization (family, peer group, school). The reliability of tools is 0.85 according to Cronbach’s alpha in Zaki’s research (2003). In Ghorban’s research it is reported 0.89. In this research the alpha is calculated to be 0.76.

The aim of this study was to define the roles of social factors in socialization of high school students of Golestan province. In hypothesis test “There is a relation between peer group, family, and school with socialization” Finding indicates there is a meaningful positive correlation. This correlation between family and school is 0.337, family and peer group 0.384, school and socialization 0.155, and for peer group and socialization is 0.123. The finding of this study is consistent with Seyedi’s research (2013). This relation confirms all psychological and sociological theories which emphasis the great role of family in forming a person’s behavior, values and norms (Zaferani & Ali Nia, 2012). Finding indicate there is a major difference in socialization of different ages. Following peer groups is more in childhood and early adulthood. This is a complicated process that differs according to the age of the teenager and his need of social approval by considering the situation. The finding indicate that parents and peers often act in a coordinated way in desired targets, and finally peers pressure has a minor relation with values and attitudes of teenager. Teenagers do not always obey the peer’s rules (Brown, Lower, Mac colnahan, 1986). Young teenagers obey peers more than adult teens due to the fear of peer’s perception about themselves (Brown, Clasen & Eicher, 1986), so by aging peer’s openness of influence would be decreased.

Difference and diversity have existed since the formation of human society. Social tolerance is the foundation of democracy and civil society, and all modern societies require tolerant behavior by active citizens. Social tolerance can be defined as acceptance of differences in society. A tolerant person is one who refrains from throwing physical and language violence against those who are different. Social tolerance is one of the key elements in building a healthy and ethical society. When members of a society don’t accept differences, social solidarity will be challenged and society may encounter the risk of collapse. Several factors can be noted that affect the amount of social tolerance, including the role of the family, because it is where people spend a long time and develop their values and norms. Also, it has a vital role in shaping children’s attitudes and behaviors. Among the factors considered in the area of the family that affect children’s social tolerance, especial attention should be paid to different parenting styles (authoritarian, permissive and democratic), network of family and social relations and the amount of religiosity in family.

This study is conducted through survey method and data were obtained through questionnaire. Formal validity of the questionnaire was confirmed and for reliability Cronbach’s alpha was used.The statistical population includes Shahid Chamran University students, of whom 374 individuals were selected as the sample. Sampling method is classification stratified sampling.

The results indicate that only two variables of the amount of religiosity in the family and authoritarian parenting style have a meaningful relation with social tolerance and other variables such as permissive parenting style, democratic parenting style and network of family and social relations do not have a meaningful relation with dependent variable. The result of regression analysis also indicates that independent variables predict 38.5 percent of the variance of social tolerance. We recommend that the same research will be done on other samples.

Today, the common goal of development at the local, national and international levels is to improve the quality of life, and the future of human life depends on understanding the factors that affect it. The quality of life, known as the indicator of economic and social development, is to illustrate the welfare in society and in fact reflect the development outcomes. This indicator is influenced by many factors, part of these factors are related to the quality of relationships with others, groups and formal and informal institutions. Together they produce the amount of trust and social participation that is called social capital. In this regard, the subject of this research is to investigate the relationship between social capital and quality of life, which we investigated by analyzing the types of social capital and their impact on the quality of life of women in Tehran.

The present study is carried out using survey method and questionnaire as its research tool. Initially, using a snapshot of articles, books, and journals, the theoretical foundations of the subject matter and hypotheses were formulated. The social capital questionnaire was drafted and adapted from previous research as well as theoretical study. The statistical population of the study is women aged 25-65 years old in Tehran. The sample size was estimated to be 351 individuals by using Cochran's formula. Using multi-stage cluster sampling, the map of Tehran was divided into three regions. The present study is a correlational study and its design is based on the data collection method of post-translational type.. Social capital is our independent variable (predictor). The social capital questionnaire has 8 questions (50 items) that are designed on a five-option scale. The score of 50 indicates a lower social capital level and a score of 250 indicates a higher social capital level. The validity of the components of the questionnaire (social trust and social participation) has been measured in previous research. Moreover, for, the reliability of the questionnaire has been confirmed by using the Cronbach's alpha. The results of this test showed that the correlation of the variables in measuring social capital is acceptable. The next section of the questionnaire is related to the dependent variable (quality of life criterion), , which was measured by QAQ standard questionnaire (2001) in two dimensions of objective and subjective quality of life, such as Tarbati (2014) and Khosfifar et al. (2013). This questionnaire has six questions (71 items); a score of 71 indicates the lowest quality of life and a score of 355 indicates the highest quality of life..., initial processing and data entry to the computer were performed and then, using SPSS software, data analysis was done in two steps. In the first stage, central statistics and dispersion have been used for analysis and description. In the second step, Pearson correlation coefficient and linear regression coefficient and multiple regression analysis have been used to test the hypothesis of the research.

The results of the analysis show that each of the six hypotheses evaluated the relationship between social capital and quality of life in Tehran's women positively, which means that as women's social capital grows, their quality of life also increases. According to the regression analysis, the dimensions of social capital in the group and structural social capital can predict quality of life of women in Tehran, . According to the beta coefficient of the social capital within the group (B =0.381) and then social capital structure(B= 0.179), they have the greatest impact on quality of life. The results obtained in this research are based on the results of previous research such as Khan Mohammadi (2015), Khosulfar et al. (2014) Bashneqi (2014), Haghighatyan (2014), Karimizadeh and Muslim (2014), and Monika Molarska (2015).. Theoretically, the connection between social capital and quality of life has been confirmed by theorists. For example, Putnam defines a strong link between social capital and quality of life. He believes that there is a very clear and positive correlation between the variables of health and social capital. According to Athev, women are more successful in a more collaborative and knowledge-sharing environment. For women, networks with strong, supportive relationships increase the chances of upgrading to higher levels of performance. In Bourdieu's view, individuals and groups in the social sphere can convert four types of capital into one type of capital or into other types by means of redefined strategies and thus maintaining their place in the social space, or improve it. Zaff (1984) also argues that social communication and social networks make a real difference to quality of life, and the expansion and facilitation of the communication network and social links promote the level of access of individuals and groups to social and economic resources. These links and communications in their different forms, especially those obtained in this research, namely, external grouping as a sticker of elements in society and facilitating collective action, can therefore strengthen quality of life , which is, in turn, in its various dimensions, influenced by the quality of communication and social ties.

Two main functions of the educational system in any modern society are to equip individuals with knowledge that allows them to take part in social, economic, and political life and confer access to valuable credentials regardless of their social and economic background. In other words, provide opportunities for social mobility. Therefore, the performance of educational systems should be judged according to the quality of knowledge they produce (quality) and the degree to which they provide equality of educational opportunities (equality). Institutional differentiation –assigning students to differenttracks or schools - is a potential joint determinant of quality and equality in education. The review of related literature indicated that there has been a lack of research in Iran on linking institutional differentiation with equality of educational opportunities as well as applying a holistic approach for studying different types of schools. Therefore, this research was designed to fill these gaps. Thus, present research aimed to study the impact of institutional differentiation on equality of Iran education system through ranking and investigating level of inequality among different types of high schools. The theories adapted for this study are derived from the System’s Theory Input – Output model and Social Cognitive Theory. The systemic perspective argues that we should apply a global vision to underline the functioning of a phenomenon because we really can't fully understand it by breaking it up into elementary parts and then reforming it. In the Social Cognitive Theory, we consider 3 variables including behavioral factors, environmental factors, and personal factors. These three variables are interrelated with each other and cause learning to occur. This model clearly implies that an individual should have positive personal characteristics, exhibit appropriate behavior and stay in a supportive environment in order to learn effectively.

The statistical population included all students who were studying in second-cycle high schools in Urmia in 1394-1395 academic year and all teachers and principals who were working in these schools in the same academic year.1003 students and 307 teachers were selected randomly by using proportionate stratified sampling but census method was used to collect data from principals. Data was collected through questionnaires that have been used in international studies to investigate inequalities between countries as well as within the counties. The validity of questionnaires was approved through experts' views and their reliability was confirmed by Cronbach-Alpha coefficient. TOPSIS technique was employed to analyze data. This study investigated the following categories of indicators: a) Family indicators (parents' occupation - parents' educational background, parents' monthly income, size and type of parental involvement, and home educational resources); b) Student characteristics (academic self-efficacy, academic self-esteem, academic motivation and the size and shape of supplementary tutoring); c) School infrastructure (quality of the schools’ physical infrastructure, quality and quantity of school educational resources); d) Human resources (teacher training, teacher experience, teacher self-efficacy, teacher satisfaction, etc.); e) School policies (school self-evaluation, school autonomy, academic press, principals’ leadership, etc.); f) School climate (disciplinary climate; achievement press; teacher-student relations, etc.); g) Outcomes (students’ educational aspiration, students’ job aspiration, grade point average of national final exams, results of university entrance exam).

The results of the coefficient of variation method regarding inequalities between different kinds of schools showed that there were high levels of inequalities in the family indicators, school educational resources, school climate and educational outcomes. And the results obtained by TOPSIS technique showed that the group of high school for Gifted Students and public schools ranked first and last respectively in family indicators and educational outcomes. Therefore, it can be concluded that inequalities in parental socio-economic status are likely to translate into inequalities in educational outcomes of students and this can strengthen the relation between institutional differentiation and educational inequalities.

Corruption has different effects in society including erosion of political legitimacy, justifying injustice, and weakening social and institutional trusts. On the other hand, quality of government has been introduced as a key factor in combating corruption and rise of trust. Decreasing level of trust also create a self-reinforcing process which rises corruption through more readiness for committing corrupted activities. Then corruption and trust create a positive feedback process which strength each other and erode quality of government. Corruption causes less productive use of public resources and spending, inadequate incentives for investment, low quality decisions, and eroding social capital. It seems the starting point for dealing with corruption is quality of government. Quality of government including trustworthiness, impartiality and rationality in political and government institutions. While Bo Rothstein (2012) argues for the key role of quality of government for trust, Robert Putnam insists on quality and quantity of civil society. He argues that civil society creates social trust resulted in quality of government and reducing corruption. Rothstein and Putnam are representatives of top-down and bottom-up approach for explaining social trust and corruption. This article considers the relationship between level of corruption and the degree of social and institutional trusts. The main hypothesis is that a good-quality government increases social and institutional trusts by reducing level of corruption.

This paper uses secondary data. Transparency International, ICRG corruption index, the index of corruption of Institution of Global Competition and Bertelsmann's corruption index, together have created a non-corruption index based on factor analysis. Data on trust have been adopted from Inglehart’s WVS. Inglehart's trust data have been used in three categories: institutional trust, social trust and participation in civil society. Data on independent variable, index of good governance (WGI) including (Voice and Accountability, Political Stability and Absence of Violence, Government Effectiveness, Regulatory Quality, rule of low) have been obtained from World Bank Governance Indicators Project (2007-2011). Data from 43 countries, countries that all data on them were available, were used to analyze the hypothesis. All data have been analyzed by quantitative regression method and path analyses. Cluster analyses used to classify countries based on score in good governance, level of corruption, social and institutional trust, and trust in political, social and cultural institutions.

Findings show that countries with less corruption have higher levels of social and institutional trusts. Bivariate Pearson correlation analyses show that government efficiency is correlated with non-corruption (0.935) at 0.999 significance level. There is not a significant correlation between government efficiency and trust in voluntary, non-governmental organizations. Path analyses using AMOS shows that quality of government operationalized through WGI causes less corruption and lower levels of corruption rises trust in social and political dimensions. The reverse effect of non-corruption on trust in cultural institution could be analyzed as a cultural matter. Countries with high levels of quality of government are secular ones and with pluralized media environment. Secular orientation toward cultural institutions and pluralism in media create a pessimistic approach toward cultural institutions. These results verify findings of another cross-national variable oriented research. Our analyses show that efficient institutions and governance could ameliorate level of corruption and lead to rising trust, which in turn, strengthen quality of government. In sum, it can be argued that if people believe that government institutions are corrupted, their mistrust will increase. Mistrust in institutions increases readiness for corrupted actions. If people are committed to ethical codes of conduct but corruption stays a reliable option for solving problems, people neglect ethical codes in the final decision for action.